Indo-Saudi Arabia bilateral relations are multidimensional and have withstood complex challenges and tectonic shifts amidst contemporary geopolitical tumult, globally and regionally. An example of this fast-changing geopolitical development was the trilateral defence pact that was signed in Mecca among Saudi Arabia, Turkey and Pakistan on 8 August 2026. The broad contours of the “Mecca Declaration”, as it being recognised now, envisaged a collective deterrence mechanism by stating that an attack on one of them would be seen as an attack on all three nations. As for India-Saudi partnership, however, it is unlikely to have any impact as both the countries have invested significantly in various arenas including trade, commerce and energy. Both India and Saudi Arabia have followed independent economic and strategic trajectory for mutual gain while keeping strategic autonomy and strategic hedging uppermost in the conduct of foreign policy. This commentary argues that India–Saudi Arabia relations have acquired such depth and resilience, and the two countries’ national interests are so closely interlocked, that no strategic partnership Saudi Arabia may forge with other Islamic countries across the wider region—from the Mediterranean to the Hindukush and beyond—is likely to disrupt their relationship. Trade and cultural links between India and the Arabian Peninsula date back to the third millennium BC. By 1000 AD, the trade relations between the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) and India had flourished and become the mainstay of the Arabian economy for a substantial length of time. Formal diplomatic relations between India and KSA were established in 1947 when India gained independence from the British colonial rule. High- level visits between the two sides have been regular and steady. Coming to the present, the current Indian PM, Narendra Modi made his first official state visit to KSA in 2016 when he was conferred the Order of King Abdul Aziz which is Saudi Arabia’s highest civilian honour. Since then, PM Modi has visited KSA twice in 2019 and 2025 for bolstering bilateral relationship.
Gamut of bilateral cooperation
Over the past few decades, India and Saudi Arabia have collaborated in a wide range of sectors and avenues. During PM Modi’ visit to KSA in April 22, 2025, and in his meeting with Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman as part of the India-Saudi Arabia Strategic Partnership Council, several new initiatives were launched including the creation of two new oil refineries in India, collaborations in the fields of health, sports, space, postal and tele communication, medical tourism, civil aviation, strategic petroleum reserves, small and medium scale industries and Skills Development.
The Strategic Partnership Council have been expanded by forming four new ministerial committees for better coordination: 1. Political Consular and Security Cooperation Committee, 2. Defence Cooperation committee, 3. Economy, Energy, Investment and Technology Committee, 4, Tourism and Cultural Cooperation Committee.
When Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman visited Delhi in September 2023 during the G20 summit in Delhi, agreements were signed in areas such as energy, banking, divestment, manufacturing, archival cooperation, water desalination. Official delegation from the Saudi-India Parliamentary Friendship Committee of the Majlis-e-Shura visited India in December 2025. In a reciprocal measure, India too has constituted such Parliamentary Friendship committee in February 2026.
Trade and Investment
Bilateral trade ties between India and KSA have steadily expanded and further strengthened by continuous interactions, collaborations and cooperation, including through regular exchange of business delegations. Besides being a major trade partner, India values Saudi Arabia as a reliable economic partner for investments, joint ventures, transfer of technology projects and joint projects in third countries as well as in knowledge -based industries and technologies.
India is the second largest trading partner for Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia is the fifth largest trading partner of India. In 2024-25, bilateral trade volume zoomed to UD$41.88 billion which consists of Saudi exports to India worth USD$30.12 billion and Indian exports to Saudi Arabia worth USD$11.76 billion. High-level Task Force between India and KSA have earmarked USD$100 billion Saudi mega investment target in the Indian market. Crude of Saudi Arabia supplies are approximately 15 per cent of India’s total crude oil imports. Major commodities of exports from India to Kingdom of Saudi Arabia included: petroleum products, rice, chemicals, textiles, food products, ceramic tiles. Indian imports from Saudi Arabia include crude oil, LPG, fertilizers, chemicals, plastic products. Saudi investment in India is channelized through the Public Investment Fund (PIF) which is the Saudi Sovereign Wealth Fund and is worth over USD $10 billion investment in India. Major Saudi Investments in India included: Aramco (Energy), Zamil Group (Steel industry), SABIC(Chemicals), Al Fanar (Renewable energy), Salic (Food Supply), Petromin (Automobile Industries). Indian investments in KSA are little over USD$ 3 billion spread in diverse sectors such as construction projects, consultancy services, telecommunications, financial services, Information Technology, software development and pharmaceuticals. Over 6000 Indian companies are currently registered in KSA to render valuable customised services in these sectors.
The nearly 3-million-strong Indian community in Saudi Arabia is the largest expatriate community in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and is the ‘most preferred community’ owing to their unique expertise and entrepreneurial skills, dedicated sense of discipline with utmost rigour and adherence to Saudi law. The Haj pilgrimage is another important component of bilateral relations. In 2019, KSA increased the Hajj quota from India , to 2,00,000 making India the 2nd highest country in the number of pilgrims. Approximately 400,000 Indians perform Umrah pilgrimage every year. For better facilitation and convenience of Indian Haj pilgrims going to KSA, Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India, has introduced e-Masiha, e-luggage pre-tagging, digital mapping of Haj Group Organisers.
Education and Cultural Ties
With wealth of abundant resources, India can offer Saudi Arabia substantially in the realm of knowledge economy with India having more than 400 universities, 12,000 colleges and 1,500 research institutions as well as significant increase in the IT and digital workforce. A number of universities in Saudi Arabia such as King Saud University of Riyadh and King Abdul Aziz University based in Jeddah have meaningful collaborations with their counterparts in India. Under India’s NEP-2020 (New Education Policy), one of the major thrust and priority areas have been internationalization of education sector. Under this NEP initiative, it is expected that Saudi Arabian universities can open branch campuses in India. Similarly, Indian universities can plan to have satellite campuses established in major cities of Saudi Arabia.
Under Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman’s Vision 2030 initiative, emphasis has been laid on enhanced collaboration and for greater in-depth study and upscale research of Saudi Arabia’s economy, society, heritage, culture, arts, music, and literature. India was accorded the Guest of Honour at the recently held Saudi National Heritage Festival Janadriyah. Yoga is gaining popularity in the kingdom and is regarded as a sports activity. This was evident during celebrations of International Day of Yoga on June 21 in various Saudi cities and which has been held in cooperation between Saudi Ministry of Sports and India’s Ministry of Ayush. Embassy of India in KSA in partnership with Samskita Bharati is dedicated for the promotion of Sanskrit language and had organised ‘Samskritotsava’ and ‘Gita Mahotsav’ showcasing soulful music of Bhagvad Gita. The Saudi Theatre and Performing Arts Commission has launched the Ebhrahim-Al-Kazi Chair of Research in Riyadh in April 2026 to honour Ebhrahim-Al-Kazi, the reputed Saudi -born Indian theatre personality. Resident Indians living in KSA have received recognition under Pravasi Bharatiya Samman Award.
Defence Collaboration
In the defence sector, India and KSA have signed a number of key agreements pertaining to training and capacity building. Trainees from King Fahd Naval Academy of the Royal Saudi Naval Forces have completed their training modules at the Training Squadron of the Indian Navy in July 2024. Delegations from India’s National Defence College (NDC) have visited KSA for knowledge dissemination. Indian ships have regularly visited Saudi ports. INS Tamal and INS Surat have made port calls in Jeddah in 2025. ICGS Sarthak visited Damam in December 2025. India has officially participated in the high profile World Defence Show in KSA in 2024 and 2026. There have been joint military exercises such as Naval exercise, Al Mohed Al Hindi and land force exercise, Ex-Sada Tanseeq in 2024. India’s National Security Advisor, Ajit Doval, in July 2026, made a visit to KSA to review the fallout from the ongoing US-Iran conflict and its possible ramifications on assured energy supply from KSA to India through Bab-al-Mandab and the Red Sea routes. India has asked KSA to consider mutual interests and sensitivities in bilateral strategic ties vis-a-vis Riyadh’s signing of SMDA (Strategic Mutual Defence Agreement) with Pakistan.
Challenges
Various challenges do remain which require skilful negotiations and deft handling through appropriate channels by both sides. On the issue of migration, Saudi Arabia’s introduction of Kafala system has been a matter of concern for prospective migrants from India due to provision of limited labour rights, wage dispute mechanisms, recourse to legal rights and lawful employment. Other challenges include: trade imbalance, inordinate delay in implementation of strategic projects, slow and tardy pace of FTA negotiations, US-Iran conflict and its fallout, geopolitical divergences concerning Pakistan’s defence pact with KSA, and global uncertainties concerning Trump’s tariff tantrums, role of China and its BRI (Belt and Road Initiative) and the progress of IMEEC (India - Middle East- Europe Economic Cooperation) project.
The Way Forward and the Future Directions
As a way forward, several initiatives can be re-looked and re-assessed such as broadening the economic landscape in Fintech, renewable energy, blue economy, food security, healthcare, digital economy ( UPI- Aadhaar linked IDs); advance in defence and strategic ties such as artificial intelligence, cyber technology, counter terrorism, research and development; launching more people-centric diplomacy such as in Heritage, Films, Arts, Language Training Program; strengthen multilateral and regional cooperative architecture in bodies such as G20, BRICS plus, GCC plus and in having a rule-based international order ; ensure welfare of the Indian diaspora and expatriates in areas of labour migration, faster dispute redressal, skill recognition, safe , legal and diversified migration specially in the post-Kafala labour frameworks and regulations of Saudi Arabia.
Today, Indo–Saudi relations are growing strongly in a robust manner, reflecting the inherent strengths, resilience and complementarily nature of the two economies. Various high-level dialogues from both sides including visits by Prime minister Narendra Modi and Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman have led to a sound basis and strong foundation for a constructive, sustainable and mutually beneficial relationship and this may prove to be a win-win proposition for both sides in the coming years and decades.
In view of the above, while the Mecca Declaration has understandably heightened anxieties among Indian strategic analysts regarding Saudi Arabia's strategic commitments to Pakistan in the event of any future India-Pakistan conflict, the depth and multifaceted nature of Indo-Saudi relations provide sufficient reassurance that such partnerships will not fundamentally alter bilateral ties. Over decades, India and Saudi Arabia have assiduously constructed an intricate web of economic interdependencies, defence collaborations, and cultural bonds that transcend geopolitical fluctuations. With bilateral trade exceeding USD 41.88 billion, Saudi crude constituting 15 percent of India's oil imports, and over USD 10 billion in Saudi investments already committed, both nations have vested interests in preserving strategic autonomy while maintaining mutual prosperity. The historic Haj pilgrimage, the thriving three-million-strong Indian diaspora, and expanding defence partnerships underscore a resilience that political concerns alone cannot erode. The commitment of Indian and Saudi leaderships to independent foreign policy trajectories and strategic hedging suggests that the Mecca Declaration, while diplomatically significant, need not destabilise a relationship fortified by shared economic interests and far-reaching strategic calculations.
Dr. Mohammed Badru Alam has been Director of Research; Professor and Head, Department of Political Science, Faculty of Social Sciences, Retd; Jamia Millia Islamia University, New Delhi. The views are those of the author.
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